Establishment of the state of Israel

Israel - Historical and Cultural background

In 1896, a Jewish journalist living in Austria-Hungary, Theodor Herzl, published an article entitled The Jewish State (German: Der Judenstaat). In it, he stated that the only solution to the "Jewish question" in Europe was the establishment of a Jewish state. Thus, political Zionism was born. Herzl then founded the World Zionist Organisation, which a year later called for the establishment of a new Jewish state in Palestine. Why specifically in Palestine? From time immemorial, Orthodox Jews have regarded the area around Jerusalem as their holy land and ancestral home. Citing ancient scriptures, they claimed that this land was promised by God to their ancestor Abraham and his descendants.

World Zionist Organisation - one of the conventions at which the foundations for a Jewish state in Palestine were prepared. To the right on the wall is a likeness of Theodor Herzl.
World Zionist Organisation - one of the conventions at which the foundations for a Jewish state in Palestine were prepared. To the right on the wall is a likeness of Theodor Herzl.

"Return to the homeland of their fathers" - the so-called Aliyah - significant Jewish immigration to Palestine began in 1881 with the pogroms against Jews in Tsarist Russia. At that time, some 25,000 Jews arrived in Palestine from Russia, but also from Yemen and Romania. The subsequent waves of immigration were dominated by supporters of socialist-Zionist ideologies from Eastern Europe who, after the defeat of the Russian Revolution in 1905 and after another wave of pogroms, now grasped the idea of a Jewish state created by Herzl. They established colonies, settlements, farming communities, reclaimed swamps, the Judean Desert and strips of sand dunes. They founded the coastal city of Tel Aviv and a network of small agricultural settlements.

Tel Aviv was founded on land purchased from the Bedouin, north of the existing city of Jaffa. The photo shows the auction of the first plots of land in 1909.
Tel Aviv was founded on land purchased from the Bedouin, north of the existing city of Jaffa. The photo shows the auction of the first plots of land in 1909.

In 1914, the First World War broke out between Britain and its allies (the Allies) and the German Empire and its allies (the Central Powers). In the course of it, the British defeated the Turkish army and occupied the entire area of present-day Palestine, Syria and Lebanon. When the war was ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, the borders of the states had to be settled. Palestine then became a Mandate Territory - that is, one of the territories taken from Germany and Turkey and placed under the administration of the victorious coalition. The treaty obliged Britain to administer the territory (of Palestine) on terms which will prevent abuses such as the slave, arms and liquor trade, ensure freedom of conscience and religion, ... forbid the erection of fortresses, the establishment of military and naval stations, ... ensure to the other Members of the League equal terms of exchange and trade. In other words, it was to prevent further colonialism.

It should be added here that on the issue of Palestine, during this period, three deals were made by the British government; each contradicting the others:

  1. 1915-1916: The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence - a series of letters exchanged during the First World War between the UK government and the leader of the Sharifat of Mecca. They stated that in return for joining the war against the Turks, the UK government would support Arab independence aspirations: "Britain stands ready to recognise and support the independence of the Arabs in all regions within the limits demanded by the Sharif of Mecca".
  2. 1916: Sykes-Picot Agreement - this was a secret treaty between Britain and France that set out the division of influence and control of the territories of the former Ottoman Empire. Britain was to be given Palestine under its administration, while France was to be given Syria and Lebanon.
  3. 1917: The Balfour Declaration - this was a public statement issued by the British government announcing support for the establishment of a 'national home for the Jewish people' in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a small Jewish minority. For the Arabs, this was a highly controversial decision, as the declaration was made by a European power in respect of non-European territory, completely disregarding both the presence and interests of the indigenous population.
British politician Lord Arthur Balfour during a visit to Jerusalem, April 1925.
British politician Lord Arthur Balfour during a visit to Jerusalem, April 1925.

In the eyes of the Arabs, the last two agreements were a clear act of betrayal. Meanwhile, more and more Jewish settlers were arriving in Palestine. This soon led to Arab revolts and acts of violence. The number of victims on both sides of the conflict was similar. Eventually, the British authorities managed to work out a thread of agreement; the number of Jewish immigrants was limited and, in 1923, Britain officially received a mandate over Palestine.

British soldiers remove an improvised roadblock during an Arab revolt
British soldiers remove an improvised roadblock during an Arab revolt. (Archive of Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi)

This, however, did not stop the Arab riots. Despite the fact that Britain again reduced the number of immigrants and restricted land acquisition rights in Palestine, the Haganah - the Jewish paramilitary self-defence organisation - continued to efficiently maintain illegal channels for smuggling Jews into Palestine. In response, the Arabs formed the anti-Zionist and anti-British armed organisation Black Hand. Diversionary actions were carried out against Jewish kibbutzim and mohawks, and British railway lines. In retaliation, the British killed its leader. This provoked an outcry from the Arab community and a demand that they be allowed to form their own Palestinian government and that Jewish settlements be banned altogether. The demands were met with refusal, which led to the Great Arab Revolution that took place between 1936 and 1939 - a national uprising of Palestinian Arabs against colonial British rule and mass Jewish immigration.

Arab fighters looting a destroyed military vehicle during the Great Revolt of 1936-39
Arab fighters looting a destroyed military vehicle during the Great Revolt of 1936-39

The uprising was bloodily suppressed and the Arab community was deprived of its national leadership and military capabilities. After these events, the British government completely banned further Jewish immigration, which in turn led to a conflict with Jewish organisations: in the face of the Second World War, immigration to Palestine was sometimes the only way of escape. By this time, two Jewish terrorist organisations - Irgun and Lechi - were already active, smuggling Jews illegally into Palestine, planting bombs and waging an armed struggle against the British Mandate authorities demanding the lifting of restrictions on immigration. By their hand, British Minister of State for the Middle East Baron Walter Guinness was assassinated in Cairo. In retaliation, the British arrested many of their members in an effort to break up the organisation.

Clifford Martin and Mervyn Paice, two British sergeants kidnapped and hanged by the Irgun in 1947.
Clifford Martin and Mervyn Paice, two British sergeants kidnapped and hanged by the Irgun in 1947.

During the Second World War, the British again tried to persuade Arab leaders to form an alliance against Germany. However, these, remembering the earlier betrayal of the British, counted more on the victory of the Axis countries, hoping this would be the best way to protect Palestine from the Zionists and the British: once the war with the USSR and Europe was over, Germany was to solve the problem of Jews living in Arab countries under the protectorate of British rule. The spectre of these events compelled the British to start working with the Jewish community. They established close contacts with the Haganah to carry out operations against a common enemy - Nazi Germany. Despite this, some 12,000 Arab Palestinians volunteered to serve in the British army, often fighting side-by-side with Jews.

New Arab recruits line up for a British Army exercise in Mandate Palestine
New Arab recruits line up for a British Army exercise in Mandate Palestine

The Holocaust marked a turning point in Jewish immigration to Palestine, in the struggle for their own security and independence, and the myth of the sacrifice of six million victims further fuelled Jewish aspirations for an independent state. The British authorities continued to fight against the illegal movement of Jews to Palestine. Despite much pressure, they still did not lift restrictions on immigration. In response, the Jewish terrorist organisation Irgun announced a fight against the British, despite the fact that the largest Jewish paramilitary organisation, the Haganah, still maintained cooperation with the British administration. Britain, however, was not going to change its immigration policy. In this situation, the three main Jewish organisations (Irgun, Lechi and the Haganah, which had now changed front) began attacking British administration facilities. The Irgun blew up, among other things, the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, which was the headquarters of the British military staff. The attack killed 91 people and wounded 45. At the same time, acts of mutual violence between the Jewish and Arab communities multiplied.

King David Hotel after the bombing
King David Hotel after the bombing by Irgun militants on 22 July 1946.

In 1947, the issue of Palestine was taken up by the UN. It was decided to divide Palestine into two states: Jewish and Arab. This was opposed by the Arab side, arguing that the UN is not the successor to the League of Nations, which created the Mandate of Palestine, and therefore does not have the right to make decisions on the issue. The Jewish side, in turn, appealed to the subcommittee to adopt this plan. It was implemented without major changes. The Jewish state received 56% of the territory of Palestine and the Arab state 42%. The Arabs saw the plan to divide Palestine as unfair, as it gave most of the state's territory to the Jewish minority. By comparison, back in 1945, the Jews, who made up 31% of the total population of Palestine, owned about 1,500 square kilometres of land, while the Arabs, with 61% of the population, owned less than 25,000 square kilometres. The territory of the Arabs was also divided into 3 separate, unconnected regions, which made the creation of a Palestinian state virtually impossible and gave Israel real control over the movement of the Palestinian population. Jerusalem, under international control, was placed in the Arab area, away from the Israeli territories.

Within hours of Israel's proclamation of independence, the Arab armed intervention in Palestine began, which started the First Israeli-Arab War.

Jewish residents of Jerusalem celebrating the UN decision to partition Palestine, riding on an armoured police car, Jerusalem, 1947
Jewish residents of Jerusalem celebrating the UN decision to partition Palestine, riding on an armoured police car, Jerusalem, 1947 (fot.: Hans Pinn/GPO)

SOURCES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMahon%E2%80%93Hussein_Correspondence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terytorium_mandatowe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestyna_(mandat)
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabskie_powstanie_w_Palestynie_(1936%E2%80%931939)
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chaim-Weizmann
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-41765892


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